Dr W J Grobler BVSc.
These are short descriptions of the symptoms, treatment, post mortem signs and prevention of some of the more common diseases in the Rustenburg area. The author accepts no responsibility for the incorrect diagnosis or treatment of any animals arising either directly or indirectly from the reading of this information. The onus rests on the farmer to consult a veterinarian for a correct diagnosis. If you have any comments or queries feel free to contact the author via e-mail.
| TICK-BORNE DISEASES | NUTRITIONAL DISEASES |
| Heartwater | Protein- and energy shortage |
| Redwater | Acidosis |
| Gallsickness (Anaplasmosis) | Rumen stasis |
| Sweating sickness | Bloat |
| VIRAL DISEASES | Overfeeding |
| Lumpy skin disease | POISONING |
| Three-day-stiffsickness | Poison leaf (Gifblaar) |
| IBR | Tulp |
| BVD (Mucosal disease) | Lantana |
| BACTERIAL DISEASES | Urea |
| Black quarter | Prussic acid (Cyanide) |
| Botulism | ADDENDUM |
| Anthrax | Liver supportive therapy |
| Paratyphoid | Antibiotics |
| Brucellosis (contagious abortion) | |
| Leptospirosis | |
| Pasteurellosis | |
| E. coli |
This is probably the most important disease of ruminants in our area. It is very important for all stock farmers here to be au fait with its treatment and prevention. It is transmitted by the bont tick. To view a more detailed page on heartwater see this article.
High fever, high stepping gait, rapid blinking, especially when handled, small haemorrhages on eye membranes. Once animals go down galloping movements of the legs are seen, animals often froth at the nose and sometimes diarrhoea is seen.
Tetracyclines (drugs ending in -mycin), Doxycycline (Doxymycin). Anti- inflammatories.
Varying quantities of fluid around the heart, in the thorax, abdomen and lungs as seen in the photo on the left. (Point the mouse on the various areas to see a description) White foam in the trachea which is sometimes seen at the nose in terminal patients. Often jelly-like substance contained in this fluid.
Animals in heartwater areas should not be kept free from ticks for prolonged periods; this is especially true for calves younger than three weeks. Inject animals with heartwater blood during times of low tick exposure e.g. in winter. Animals older than three weeks should be observed carefully and treated if a fever develops. This usually occurs 10 to 30 days after the injection of blood.
High fever, reddish or brown urine, mucous membranes pale (sometimes yellow), rapid, shallow breathing, soft faeces (often yellowish). In the case of European Redwater symptoms similar to heartwater are seen. In the photo on the right these organisms are seen as dark specks inside the red blood cells in the brain. Both types of Redwater are carried by the blue tick.
Berenil, Dimisol, Reverin or Forray 65, vit B-complex, liver supportive drugs.
Blood watery, urine dark, spleen enlarged. Organisms can be seen in a blood smear and in the case of European Redwater in a brain smear as above. In the latter the brain appears very red as seen below.
Animals from non redwater areas can be vaccinated. In areas where the disease is prevalent care should be taken not to keep animals too clean from ticks. Animals can lose their resistance within a few months. Calves are naturally resistant to infection up to six months of age, but in exceptional instances may become sick before then.
Varying degrees of fever, pale/yellow mucous membranes, dry faeces, urine dark yellow. The blue tick is responsible for transmission.
Tetracyclines (double dose), Doxycycline, Forray 65. Liver supportive therapy. Rumen supportive therapy
Blood watery, membranes and mucous membranes yellow, liver yellow (even orange), contents of paunch very dry. The organisms can be seen in a bloodsmear as on the right. The organisms are the dark spots inside the red blood cells.
Basically the same as for redwater.
Caused by the bont-legged tick (Hyalomma) and affects young calves.
Skin moist, hair falls out (see below left), saliva flow, diarrhoea and abdominal pain (animals groan and walk with arched backs.) The disease results in severe inflammation of the skin, airways and intestines. Below to the right is an example of severe inflammation of the oesophagus. Such an animal would obviously be reluctant to drink.
Oral fluids, antibiotics, anti-inflammatories. Remove all bont-legged ticks by hand. (Pay special attention to the tail switch) Calves suffering from this disease easily dehydrate because a lot of fluid escapes through the inflamed skin and because they are reluctant to suckle due to the inflammation of the mouth.
The virus is suspectedly transmitted by biting insects. Initially animals present with a rather mild nasal discharge, saliva flow and lameness, all of which aren't very obvious. A week later distinct nodules appear all over the body ranging from 1 to 4 cm in size. At this stage there may also be swelling of one or more limbs. The nodules may disappear uneventfully or the skin may die off in those areas leaving open sores that sometimes heal with difficulty. In 1997 lesions were seen in calves as young as 10 days! In severe cases lesions occur in the trachea and in these animals laboured breathing is a prominent sign. Lesions may also be found in the intestinal tract. In bulls inflammation of the testes with resulting infertility is a very unfortunate symptom.
Antibiotics to prevent secondary infection of the skin lesions. Once these lesions start becoming loose, they must be checked for maggot infestation. Animals that battle to breathe have got little hope and must rather be culled.
Calves are vaccinated at six months of age and thereafter annually.
The virus is transmitted by biting insects. All animals are equally susceptible but the symptoms are much more pronounced in heavy bulls and cows. Affected animals lie down a lot and when they do get up the muscles tremble, especially those of the hindquarters. There is often a clear nasal discharge and copious saliva flow. A lot of mucous is seen in the faeces which sometimes contain blood. In heavy bulls the symptoms may be sudden and rather dramatic.
In rare instances affected animals show rapid breathing which is associated with spongy swellings over the thorax. (This has to be distinguished from Black quarter) In cows there is a sudden and alarming drop of milk which may be normalised on recovery.
Antibiotics, anti-inflammatories and general nursing of recumbent animals.
Inflammation of joints and muscles, lung emphysema. On the photo left is an example of severe inflammation of the tendons. In rare instances swelling
under the skin are seen secondary to severe lung emphysema. (clear gas bubbles in between muscles as opposed to the smelly,
bloody bubbles in the muscles as seen with Black quarter)
Vaccinate bulls and dairy cows annually.
Initially clear nasal discharge, tear flow. Sometimes diarrhoea in young calves. This virus can cause abortions which occur a while after the respiratory symptoms, but cows often don't show any symptoms. Infection with IBR may also predispose animals to Pasteurellosis.
Tetracyclines, Sulfas, newer antibiotics (consult your vet).
Vaccinate calves 4 weeks before weaning. IBR is usually combined with the viruses of BVD, Parainfluenza 3 and Bovine syncitial virus. NB Vaccines containing live virus should not be given to pregnant animals!
Causes severe diarrhoea and lesions in mouth and nasal mucosa. Usually small sores are found in the mouth and nose which can be infected secondarily and become very uncomfortable. Abortions and malformed calves are frequently found in cows afflicted with this virus. The disease is at present not widespread in SA but may spread rapidly in a susceptible population.
Antibiotics to prevent secondary infection.
Vaccination (See IBR).
Only animals younger than three years of age are susceptible to this serious disease. Animals affected are frequently in superb condition and often outbreaks occur where almost all afflicted animals die.
Animals are usually found dead. In the instance where sick animals are seen they show severe swelling and lameness of especially one hindquarter, but lesions may also occur in the shoulder or around the heart. Lesions can even occur in the kidney!
Very high doses of penicillin can be tried in early cases, but treatment is usually in vain due to the extensive damage caused by the organisms.
From the outside the carcase appears very swollen on the one side. On cutting
the muscles a spongy appearance of the muscle is noted with a rancid smell.
The muscles also appear dark and a bloody fluid oozes from the cut surface (see photo left).
Remember that lesions may be found in the heart and diaphragm. Lesions of
black quarter have to be distinguished from putrefaction (the whole carcase is
equally affected) and emphysema under the skin with Three day stiffsickness or
with damage to the trachea when bulls have fought (clear bubbles in between
muscles with little or no fluid and no smell in a fresh carcase)
Vaccinate all calves at 4 - 5 months, a month later and then annually till three years of age. If the disease occurs despite vaccination samples have to be sent in for analysis. In rare instances organisms other than those included in the common vaccine can cause symptoms indistinguishable from those of black quarter. Under such circumstances a vaccine containing these organisms should be used .
This disease is caused by a very strong toxin produced by bacteria growing in rotting carcases. Cattle suffering from a phosphate deficiency are likely to eat bones and thus ingests the poison which is one of the strongest known to man. The toxin may also be found in litter from broilers in which case the organisms grow in chicken carcases.
The toxin causes paralysis of all the muscles in the body. In a typical case the animal lies on the brisket with the head turned to the side. Even the tail is paralysed and the tongue can be pulled out without difficulty with the animal unable to pull it back into the mouth.
There are no lesions found on post mortem. Pieces of bone are often found in the reticulum.
All animals should be vaccinated annually, especially if fed chicken litter. Phosphate should be supplied throughout the year in a lick. As far as possible all carcases of hares, tortoises and game should be burned if found.
Animals are found dead with a black tarry discharge exuding from the nose, mouth and anus as seen below left. If anthrax is at all suspected the carcase may not be opened under any circumstances and the State Veterinarian must be informed as soon as possible. The carcase contains billions of bacteria (see below right) that form resistant spores as soon as they are exposed to oxygen. These spores can survive in the environment for more than forty years!
By law all animals must be vaccinated annually.
Severe diarrhoea in calves usually younger than three weeks. The stools are often bloody and calves may die within 24h due to dehydration. The organisms may also spread throughout the body via the bloodstream and thus cause death or joint ill after the diarrhoea has cleared up.
Antibiotics, especially Sulfa drugs and newer drugs (consult your veterinarian). Withhold milk until the diarrhoea has cleared up and replace with a lukewarm electrolyte solution. In the case of valuable calves it is worth while to rehydrate using intravenous fluids. Kaolin or activated charcoal may be given to bind the stools and to absorb toxins produced by bacteria.
Cows should calve down in an area relatively free from bacteria preferably in the veld. Make sure that calves ingest at least one liter of colostrum not later than six hours after birth. Colostrum may even be frozen for emergencies. Week old calves should be vaccinated with the live vaccine which can be given with heartwater.
This is a highly contagious disease which also affect humans. The disease is not transmitted sexually, but during and after calving millions of organisms are found in the foetus, afterbirth and uterine fluids that contaminate the environment. Humans contract the disease by contact with the afterbirth and fluids and also by drinking milk from affected cows, even though these animals may not show symptoms of disease.
During an initial outbreak in a susceptible herd a number of animals abort and
afterbirths tend to be retained. Thereafter abortions occur less frequently, but
retained afterbirths are regularly found. Extreme caution should be taken in a
herd that may be infected when trying to remove afterbirths.
Heifers between ages 6 and 8 months are to be vaccinated. Older animals should not be vaccinated unless instructed thus by the State Veterinarian. Herds should be tested on a regular basis and all positive animals slaughtered as there is no treatment available. If abortions occur the fetus should be burned or buried and any suspected cases isolated from the rest of the herd. Any animals bought in have to be tested before introduction into the herd.
Brucellosis is not the only cause of abortions in cattle. There are numerous possibilities and it is often difficult to establish a specific cause. If abortions do occur serum of the cows should be sent in to test for Brucellosis and Leptospirosis. If possible the whole foetus and afterbirth can be sent in on ice to a veterinary laboratory for analysis. If the foetus has already decomposed a diagnosis is very unlikely.
These organisms prefer a wet environment such as vleis or where animals are kept under unhygienic conditions. Rodents can act as carriers of the organisms.
High fever, jaundice, redstained urine and abortions. The symptoms are similar to those of redwater. After recovery bacteria are secreted in the urine for prolonged periods of time.
Leptospirosis of the kidney. (The organisms are the thin black lines).
Tetracyclines, Streptomycin.
Pest control, repair leaking drinking troughs.
Usually occurs during periods of abnormal stress e.g. weaning, transport, dusty or windy conditions or mixing of animals from different groups (feedlots).
High fever, listlessness, rapid or forced breathing, nasal discharge, sometimes coughing. Animals affected to a lesser degree perform poorly and lose weight. In severe cases animals may die in a few hours.
Antibiotics — Tetracyclines, Sulfa drugs and some of the newer antibiotics especially developed for this disease (consult your vet). Anti-inflammatories. Vit C. Rumen supportive treatment in chronic cases.
Lungs dark in colour, harder than usual (the normal lung is very spongy to the touch). Often considerable amounts of fluid in the thorax containing strawcoloured clots resembling jelly. In chronic cases the lungs adhere to the thoracic wall and abscesses may be found in the lung tissue. In severe cases a lesion as big as a man's fist may cause the death of an animal!
Since several viral infections of the respiratory tract make the animal more sus- ceptible to Pasteurellosis it is advisable to vaccinate calves against these diseases before weaning or before transport to feedlots. Combination vaccines should then be administered at least four weeks before weaning. All animals should be vaccinated with Pastvac or the new Onderstepoort Pasteurella vaccine. (Leukopast or Leukopast 3)
This organism is found in faeces and thus occurs in large amounts where animals gather e.g. kraals and drinking troughs. Calves ingest the organisms when suckling or it can enter through the umbilical cord.
Diarrhoea in young calves (usually whitish in colour). Infection of the umbilicus, joints and general septicaemia may also occur. In calves that didn't get colostrum the disease is usually fatal.
The same basic principles apply as was discussed under Paratyphoid. These bacteria often are resistant to the more common antibiotics and it is thus advisable to use newer antibiotics (consult your vet).
Ensure adequate intake of colostrum before the calf is older than six hours. Cows should be vaccinated against E. coli at least four weeks before calving. Heifers should receive a further dose eight weeks before calving. If a lot of problems with naval ill is experienced the umbilicus can be disinfected with iodine and special attention given to hygiene when calves are raised intensively.
In winter the nutritional value of veld grasses dramatically decrease. The moisture content is lowered and grasses contain much less protein and carbohydrates necessitating a higher intake by animals to ensure adequate nutrient levels in the body. In heavily pregnant cows the space occupied by the uterus prevents intake of large quantities of feed leading to an imbalance in demand and supply of nutrients causing breakdown of body reserves to supply the demands of the growing calf. Cows lose condition and if extra nutrients aren't supplied the cow's muscles can't bear the ever increasing weight of the uterus and they become recumbent in a lot of cases never to be able to rise again.
A close eye has to be kept on pregnant animals in winter. If their condition should deteriorate additional provision must be made in the form of good quality hay, silage and/or concentrates. A winter lick should be provided in all cases to enable animals to make better use of the available grazing. Wean calves earlier if the cows' condition justifies it. A number of products are available which help animals utilise trees.
The paunch or rumen of the ruminants (cattle, sheep, antilope) is a very special fermentation tank in which millions of microscopic organisms and bacteria thrive. These organisms digest plant cell walls allowing the animal access to the nutrients inside the plant cells. Without these tiny organisms no cow can survive because it won't be able to make use of plant material for food. These organisms are however greatly dependent on a relatively stable environment inside the rumen; failing which they die off. If an animal ingests too much starch (mealies, wheat, sorghum) large quantities of lactic acid are formed by the quick digestion of the starch. In an acid environment lactic acid-forming bacteria proliferate speedily forming even more acid. This leads to acid building up in the body and death of the animal if steps aren't taken immediately to remedy the situation.
Diarrhoea (usually yellow in colour) with an acid odour, bloat, animals grunt and don't get up easily; if they are still able to walk they do so with a stiff gait as if walking on hot coals.
Dose animals with an antacid and/or activated charcoal. A dose of penicillin may be given with this mixture or injected directly into the rumen. Inject vit B complex (especially vit B1) for a few days afterwards.
Rumen filled with huge quantities of sour-smelling watery contents, often with large amounts of the responsible starch-containing feed.
Cattle should be exposed gradually to feed high in starch (mealies, wheat, bread or dried mealie pap). All concentrates should be locked away so that animals can't accidentally ingest thereof. Be extra careful when animals are fed in a feed- lot situation or are fed in preparation for an auction or a show.
The organisms mentioned earlier also make use of the nutrients ingested by the animal. The rumen is designed to contract every minute or so to mix its contents so that proper digestion can take place. If an animal should stop eating or develop a fever causing the ruminal contractions to cease, the rumen contents don't mix adequately and digestion is retarded. The acidity of the rumen is decreased and because of this and the decrease in their food supply the organisms in the rumen die off, leading to a further decrease in ruminal activity and eventually cessation of all rumen movements (stasis) The animal is bound to die a slow death if an attempt isn't made to get the rumen going again.
Frequently the animal has already recovered from the disease initially causing the inappetance, but it still doesn't want to eat nor does it chew the cud. The faeces is very dry and hard and often covered with a clear mucus as the hard balls irri- tate the sensitive gut lining.
Dose one bottle of vinegar, one cupful of brown sugar, one cupful of brewer's yeast mixed with water. Instead of this mixture commercial powders such as Rumagest Forte or Kyrogest Forte may be given with water. Sorghum beer may be added to supply nutrients to the micro-organisms. In severe cases fresh rumen contents have to be given to replenish the micro-organisms. It is quite important to keep the rumen fluid warm and to give it as soon as possible after collection. This fluid may be obtained by slaughtering a sheep or collected from an abattoir.
Treat sick animals as soon as possible. If an animal doesn't eat within 24 hours attention should be given to the rumen. Adequate water supply is essential espe- cially in winter when the moisture content of the grazing is low. A winter lick should be supplied as soon as grazing turns yellow to enable animals to utilise it better. If at all possible feeding changes should be made gradually.
Two types of bloat can occur: Free gas bloat and frothy bloat.
In the normal course of events large quantities of gas e.g. methane is formed by The fermentation in the rumen. The animal relieves the gas pressure by eructating (belching) at regular intervals. If a foreign object should obstruct the oesophagus or if the rumen is unable to contract due to nerve damage or an abscess the gas builds up in the rumen. This buildup of gas makes it difficult for the rumen to contract thus exacerbating the pressure. The drum-like rumen presses on the diaphragm making breathing very difficult and impedes blood flow to and from the heart and a sure death follows if immediate action isn't taken. Daar word normaalweg groot hoeveelhede gas in die grootpens gevorm
In early cases it helps to raise the animal's forequarters by allowing it to stand with the front feet on a ramp. In more severe cases the gas should be let off by passing a pipe into the rumen. The use of a trocar is only warranted in cases near death or where the other methods fail because the piercing of a taut rumen inevitably leads to spillage of its contents which can cause peritonitis. In cases that recur culling must be considered as there is no cure for nerve damage.
Animals lying down should be propped up so that they don't lie on their sides for extended periods of time.
The gas formed in the rumen usually accumulates near the top of the rumen. Gas bubbles are continually formed which break through the surface of the rumen fluid. From there the gas escapes via the oesophagus. Under certain circumstances the surface tension of the fluid is increased causing entrapment of the bubbles within the fluid. An inbuilt safety mechanism prevents the animal from eructation if fluid occurs near the opening of the oesophagus to prevent the animal from inhaling fluid. The most common causes of frothy bloat is feeding of high concentrate rations and feeding of lucerne.
Oil, soap powder or drugs such as Bloatguard are dosed or injected straight into the rumen. Once these substances have broken down the bubbles, the gas will escape through a stomach pipe.
Always be careful when giving high concentrate rations. Antacid may be given with the diet to lessen the dangers of acidosis and bloat. Don't give hungry animals free access to dangerous grazing. A preventative top dressing may be sprayed over risky grazing.
This is not a common problem, but it does occur amongst show animals. In both males and females obesity can lead to lowered fertility and in cows in severe cases to difficult birth. Heavier bodies means more stress on the joints which can cause degenerative joint disease. This could be a big problem in young calves pushed for growth. On a smaller scale overfeeding causes rumen acidosis and bloat as discussed earlier which can in the long term lead to abscessation in the liver and vit B1 deficiency. The latter leads to symptoms similar to that of heartwater.
Problems occur in September when young plants emerge. (See left) In
autumn poisoning can also be a problem, especially if animals aren't used to the
plants (calves and newly introduced animals).
Sudden death after animals have drunk water or milk. If animals are seen sick they tremble and appear drunk.
None. If gifblaar poisoning is suspected, animals should not be handled or chased. Keep them away from water for approximately 48 hours. Be cautious of dehydration in summer.
Chemical control of plants. Infested areas should be fenced in or avoided in danger periods before grazing has started to grow.
This plant has an underground bulb which is very hardy. Its leaves are
unobtrusive and yellow or lilac Iris type flowers are borne, usually in spring.
(See right) Poisoning occurs when the young leaves start to sprout.
Diarrhoea, drowsiness, trembling, staggering. The symptoms can be confused with heartwater, but in this case there is no fever.
Give activated charcoal or PPR-powder mixed with water.
Chemical control of plants and avoidance of infested areas in danger periods.
This plant is a common invader plant and is a declared weed. The leaves and
stems are quite tough, but some animals would readily ingest it. (See left)
The toxin affects the liver, but has to be ingested over a long period of time before
symptoms appear.
Jaundice, flaking of the nose, reddening of white areas of the skin (very sensitive to sunlight), sometimes haemorrhages occur which can lead to sudden death.
Keep animals in the shade, give liver supportive drugs and anti-inflammatories. Animals take a long time to recover fully.
All tissues stained yellow by jaundice, haemorrhages (sometimes severe), white areas of skin inflamed, gall bladder often very big and filled with watery white bile.
Eradication of the plant.
Urea is included in winter licks to provide extra nutrients to the microscopic organisms which in turn is utilised by the animal as a source of protein. In large quantities the urea is broken down to ammonia which poisons the animal.
Severe bloat, nervous symptoms.
Dose 4 litres vinegar diluted with water very carefully. This is best done with a stomach tube.
Bloat, rumen contents very alkaline, lots of fluid in the lungs and white foam in the trachea.
Animals should be gradually accustomed to any feed containing urea. If the farmer mixes his own ration special care should be taken to mix the urea thoroughly and to crumb any large pieces of urea as this is very attractive to animals and as little as one egg-size piece may be fatal. Winter licks should preferably be kept under a roof to prevent the urea from dissolving in rain water.
Prussic acid (cyanide) occurs in many plants in which it is bound to certain sugars. The poison is released when plants are damaged by frost, withering or trampling. The poison interferes with oxygen metabolism inside cells and causes a rapid death in most cases.
Sudden death after ingestion of prussic acid-containing plants. Affected animals stagger, tremble, appear extremely anxious and die within minutes. Bloat is a common finding.
In severe cases a mixture of Sodium nitrite and Sodium thiosulphate (Hypo) is given slowly intravenously. In less severe cases Hypo is given orally and may even be given in the drinking water if animals were exposed to dangerous grazing.
Bloat, rumen smells of almonds in fresh carcase.
Prussic acid is found commonly in the following plants:
Prussic acid-containing plants should not be grazed in danger periods i.e. Sorghum can be safely grazed when plants are at least 50 cm in height. Dangerous plants must also be avoided when damaged especially after periods of rapid growth. Flowers of sulpher include in a lick will diminish the likelyhood of poisoning by a considerable amount.
The liver is the biggest gland in the body and is a vital part of the healthy animal. It is adversely affected by a number of diseases and usually the following symptoms are seen with a diseased liver:
In any case where the liver is affected the following general guidelines should be followed:
Animals with liver disease take a long time to recover. In rthe case of Lantana-poisoning or Gallsickness it may take weeks before they have fully recovered. Animals should not be sent for slaughter unless the jaundice has completely subsided,otherwise the carcase may be condemned at the abattoir.
Antibiotic means against life. In nature antibiotics are formed by living organisms (usually fungi) to decrease the numbers of bacteria with which they have to compete for food. These substances are nowadays artificially manufactured by man to help fight bacteria causing infections in man and animals. Over the past 40 to 50 years millions of lives have been saved by antibiotics, but the indiscriminate use thereof may lead to serious problems.
The improper or unnecessary use of antibiotics causes an increase in resistance to these drugs. This means that bacteria previously susceptible to a certain drug aren't affected by it at all necessitating higher doses or the use of stronger drugs. The worst case scenario is that certain bacteria will be resistant to all antibiotics which will make treatment of a person infected by these organisms extremely difficult. In the case of Salmonella, a bacterium responsible for typhus in humans, the only drug still effective is Chloramphenicol, the active substance in Controbac.
Controbac has been withdrawn for use as it had been incorrectly used for treatment of livestock meant for human consumption whence it could spread to the human population thus possibly leading to resistance. Because of negligence on the part of the veterinarian, pharmacist and the farmer an excellent product is no more available for use.
Should you have any queries regarding this article or any matters concerning livestock, please contact your local vet.
Acknowledgement for photos:
Photos of poisonous plants: Poisoning of man and animals in South Africa Johannes Vahrmeyer
Other photographs: Bristol Image Archives © University of Bristol 2000